Function and Evolution of the Cranial Sinuses in Bovid Mammals and Ceratopsian Dinosaurs

Finite element modeling (FEM) was used to examine the functional role of the frontal sinuses in domesticated goats. Models of the skull, with varying frontal bone and sinus morphology, were loaded under simulated head-butting conditions. It was found that the sinuses are only moderately effective as shock absorbers, are poorly placed for protecting the brain from blows to the horns, and are located in areas of bone under low stress.